Devil on the Cross

Published in 1980, Devil on the Cross by Kenyan author Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o explores themes of Exploitation and Theft Under Capitalism, The Treatment of Women in the Workforce, and The Legacy of Colonialism through its complex, nested narrative and ironic exaggeration. The story centers on the female protagonist Jacinta Warĩĩnga as she leaves her complicated and abusive life behind to return home. On her journey, she experiences self-discovery and newfound autonomy, as well as the awareness of systemic limitations and failures that are responsible for the greater issues she and others have experienced in Kenya. Thiong’o, an author and academic frequently considered a strong contender for the Nobel Prize in Literature, originally composed the novel in the Gikuyu language on a roll of toilet paper while imprisoned for his political activities, and he later completed the English translation himself.

This guide references the Penguin 2017 Kindle edition of the novel.

Content Warning: The source text and this guide include discussion of sexual harassment, sexual exploitation, enslavement, depression, and suicide.

Plot Summary

Devil on the Cross, narrated by a mysterious figure named the Gĩcaandĩ Player, begins with the story of Jacinta Warĩĩnga. The novel opens with Warĩĩnga losing her job as a secretary at the Champion Construction Company in Nairobi after rejecting the sexual advances of her employer, Boss Kĩhara. On the same day, her boyfriend, John Kimwana, breaks up with her, accusing her of being the boss’s mistress. The next morning, Warĩĩnga’s landlord visits to increase her rent. When she refuses to pay, the landlord returns with three “goons” who throw her belongings onto the street and taunt her.

Feeling depressed, Warĩĩnga decides to return to her parents’ home in Ilmorog. As she walks along the road, she impulsively considers death by suicide but is instructed not to go through with it by a mysterious voice in her head. She sits in the doorway of a local salon and has a vision of a nightmare she used to have as a student, involving the Devil being crucified and then revered.

On her journey, Warĩĩnga meets a young man who gives her an invitation to a “Devil’s Feast,” a competition to choose seven experts in theft and robbery. She boards a matatũ (minibus) driven by Mwaũra, heading to Ilmorog. Other passengers include Mũturi, a worker in blue overalls; Wangarĩ, a woman in a kitenge garment; Gatuĩria, a university researcher; and Mwĩreri wa Mũkiraaĩ, a man in dark glasses.

During the journey, the passengers engage in various discussions. Wangarĩ shares her story of being arrested for vagrancy in Nairobi while looking for work to pay off a debt. She had purchased a cow on loan but was unable to pay it back after the cow’s death. In Nairobi, she was arrested for attempted theft when she asked the same hotel twice for a job. She was fined for vagrancy and is now heading to Ilmorog to report local thieves to avoid going to jail.

Gatuĩria explains his work as a researcher in African culture at the University of Nairobi. He is searching for music that would best represent the Kenyan people and is part of a group devoted to returning to traditional ways of knowing before European imperialism. He shares stories about ogres and greed, which he wants to tell through music.

The passengers then discover they all have invitations to the Devil’s Feast, though Mwĩreri wa Mũkiraaĩ’s invitation differs, omitting mentions of the Devil. Mwĩreri wa Mũkiraaĩ claims that the Devil invitations are printed by people opposed to the competition, speculating that it was done by university students. He tells the passengers his life story, including his education at Harvard as an economist.

Upon arriving in Ilmorog, the group attends the competition, which is held in a cave. The event is run by foreign investors and local businessmen, aiming to select seven disciples of theft and robbery. The master of ceremonies gives a speech about Kenya’s history of imperialism and ongoing exploitation. An American representative explains that the International Organization of Thieves and Robbers works to unite thieves of all nationalities.

The Devil’s Feast itself is described in detail, including the cave setting, the foreign delegation wearing horns on their hats, and the polished mirror-like floor. The speeches of the master of ceremonies and the American representative are given in full, explaining the rules of the competition and the goals of the International Organization of Thieves and Robbers.

The novel provides detailed accounts of the competitors at the Devil’s Feast. Gĩtutu wa Gataangũrũ, also known as Rottenborough Groundflesh Shitland Narrow Isthmus Joint Stock Brown, describes his life with his family, mistresses, and multiple houses. He explains how he profited from purchasing expropriated land at low costs and reselling it to the poor in smaller lots at higher costs.

Kĩhaahu wa Gatheeca, who also goes by Lord Gabriel Bloodwell-Stuart-Jones, shares his story of starting as an elementary school teacher, then opening nursery schools catering to Europeans. He later entered politics, using bribery and violence to ensure his victory, and expanded his empire through foreign investments.

The competitors present their methods of theft and exploitation. Gĩtutu wa Gataangũrũ describes his profits from land speculation after the Mau Mau Rebellion and proposes selling bottled air. Kĩhaahu wa Gatheeca boasts about his political corruption, how he started nursery schools catering to Europeans, and suggests building tiny portable houses. Nditika wa Ngũũnji talks about his success in smuggling and the black market, proposing a factory for manufacturing human body parts. Kĩmeendeeri wa Kanyuanjii presents a plan to imprison workers in their factories and exploit them more fully.

During a break, Warĩĩnga experiences a vision where she converses with Satan, who tries to tempt her with riches and power. The voice reveals information about the ongoing competition and Mwaũra’s past as a contract killer during the earlier war, as he was paid for the head of every Mau Mau follower he killed. The novel reveals Warĩĩnga’s past, where she was offered to a rich white man by her uncle who desired the man’s business. Warĩĩnga, unaware of what had been promised, found the Rich Old Man constantly present, driving her home. Unable to resist his advances, she began to accept money and gifts in exchange for her love.

The Rich Old Man would take Warĩĩnga on “hunting” trips where he chased her through the trees with a gun. When Warĩĩnga became pregnant, the Rich Old Man abandoned her, convinced that she was sleeping with other men. This led to Warĩĩnga’s earlier attempts to die, including trying to drown herself in the high school swimming pool and attempting to throw herself in front of a train. Both times, she was saved by Mũturi, who was working as a security guard.

Back in the present, Wangarĩ goes to report the gathering to the police, and Mũturi organizes local workers to confront the thieves and robbers. When the workers arrive at the cave, chaos ensues. The thieves and robbers flee, and some cars are set on fire. Mũturi gives Warĩĩnga a gun for safekeeping, revealing that he’s a delegate from a secret workers’ organization in Nairobi.

In the aftermath, Warĩĩnga learns that Wangarĩ has been arrested for spreading rumors and planting seeds of conflict. Mũturi and a student leader have been detained. Mwĩreri wa Mũkiraaĩ has been killed in a car accident with Mwaũra, who survives.

The narrative then jumps forward two years. Warĩĩnga now lives in Nairobi, working as a mechanical engineer at a garage. She has gained confidence and the self-esteem necessary to recognize her own beauty. Warĩĩnga is engaged to Gatuĩria, who has completed his musical composition about Kenya’s history.

Warĩĩnga discovers that the garage where she works has been sold to her former harassing boss and foreign investors who plan to build a hotel. She reflects on the trial of Mũturi, Wangarĩ, and the student leader. During the trial, Mwaũra testified against them, twisting events to portray them as instigators. Despite the charges being dismissed, Mũturi and Wangarĩ were taken back into custody.

Warĩĩnga and Gatuĩria travel to Ilmorog to inform their families about their engagement. They visit Warĩĩnga’s parents first, then head to Gatuĩria’s family home in Nakuru. Upon arrival, they find many of the thieves and robbers from the Devil’s Feast as guests, including Kĩhaahu wa Gatheeca, Gĩtutu wa Gataangũrũ, Nditika wa Ngũũnji, Kĩmeendeeri wa Kanyuanjii, and Mwaũra, as well as Warĩĩnga’s uncle and aunt.

Warĩĩnga discovers that Gatuĩria’s father is the Rich Old Man who had exploited her sexually when she was younger. The Rich Old Man asks to speak with Warĩĩnga privately. His hands tremble, revealing his nervousness. He begs Warĩĩnga to leave Gatuĩria, claiming that revealing the truth would ruin everyone’s life. He asks Warĩĩnga to return to him, telling her not to worry about his wife. When Warĩĩnga asks if he plans to leave his wife and marry her instead, he brushes her off. The Rich Old Man drops to his knees and begins to beg Warĩĩnga, which is when she removes the gun from her purse.

Shots ring out from the room, and the guests outside the door rush inside. They find the Rich Old Man on the floor with three bullets in him. Warĩĩnga then goes outside and shoots both Kĩhaahu wa Gatheeca and Gĩtutu wa Gataangũrũ in their knees. Everyone else at the party flees from Warĩĩnga in fear. Gatuĩria, unable to decide whether to attend to his dead father or Warĩĩnga, stands frozen in the middle of the yard. The novel ends with Warĩĩnga walking away, knowing that the hardest struggles of her life’s journey lay ahead.

Throughout the novel, there are several flashbacks and additional details about the characters’ lives. Warĩĩnga’s story includes her birth in Kaambũrũ, Gĩthũngũri Kĩa Wairera, in 1953, during the British colonial rule of Kenya. Her parents were imprisoned during the Mau Mau rebellion, and she was raised by her aunt. After her parents’ release in 1960, they found their family land had been sold by the colonial regime, so they relocated to Ilmorog.

Gatuĩria’s background is also explored. He is the son of a wealthy businessman who rejected the family business to build his own path. He studied music at Harvard but returned to Kenya after seeing how Americans treated their Black population, reminding him of how his father treated poor workers in his hometown.

The novel includes detailed descriptions of the matatũ journey, with conversations between the passengers about various topics including imperialism, vagrancy laws, and the nature of good and evil. The driver, Mwaũra, shares anecdotes illustrating the impermanence of the soul and human behavior, while Mũturi argues for the existence of two hearts in humans: one built by parasites (evil) and one built by producers (good).